Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 3

Psychology - Essay Example behaviours in three general ways as follows (Social Psychology, 2005): Primarily, it perceives the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of people that are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others, which includes social perception, social interaction and many other types of influencing factors like trust and persuasion. Second, social psychology attempts to understand the influence that individual perceptions and behaviours have on a group. It involves viewing aspects like group productivity and group decision making. Third, it tries to understand groups as behavioural entities, along with the relationships and influences that one group may have on another. In relevance to the preceding paragraphs, the understanding of the following sociological social psychological processes is essential in order to realize the value of attitudes and behaviours in group settings (Social Psychology, 2005): 1. Group Cohesion and Conformity; 2) Consensus, Groups Structure, Work Performance and Decision Making; 3) Collective Behaviour Social Movements and Aggregate Behaviour; 4) Intergroup Behaviour; 5) Social Structure, Population Density and Personality; 6) Dissent, Deviance and Reactions to Deviance, and 7) Intergroup Conflict. This social psychological process tackles the degree of change that members in the group will undergo regarding behaviours, views and attitudes in order to fit in with the view of the group. The group can influence its members by the exertion of overt social pressure on individuals and this is usually done through the three subtypes of conformity which are: a) compliance – where the member conforms only in public but asserts one own views in private; b) identification – conformity is done publicly and privately while the individual is a member of the group, but not after leaving the group; c) internalization – conforming to the groups view publicly and privately during and after group membership. Moreover, when a group of

Hunting should be legal Essay Example for Free

Hunting should be legal Essay The subject of keeping hunting legal is a controversial topic. I believe that hunting should be legal. If not, many animals would die because of overpopulation. A substantial amount of our food comes from hunting animals. Many years ago, some people used hunting to survive because they couldnt buy a lot of their food. Another question is that isnt fishing the same thing as hunting so should they stop fishing if they stop hunting? Some people feel disheartened over it. Also people entreat their Congressmen to keep hunting legal; still others are uncertain whether it should be legal or not. Ultimately, I think that it should be legal if not there would be a dominate amount of animals. Here are seven reasons why hunting should to be legal in every state. There is overpopulation with many animals. One season without hunting could be fickle to the population of animals. Many of these animals will die in winter by illnesses, starvation, etc. if they are not killed during the hunting season. If hunting were illegal, the animal population would grow larger and out of control. The population of animals would grow, but the amount of food would decrease. The animals would slowly die of a grim, inhumane death of starvation. It is a proven fact that a link exists between hunting and flu cases. The more hunting that occurs in a certain area, the fewer flu cases there are in that area. Scientists are not quite sure why this trend happens, but they cannot deny the findings. One reason might be ticks might carry the flu virus. If there are fewer animals for the ticks to infest, there are fewer ticks to carry the virus. The overpopulation of animals like bears and mountain lions has resulted in attacks against people. If the population of predator animals is controlled, then the more food there will be for these animals, and they wont attack people when searching for food. Farm animals and rural pets are killed by wild animals because there is not enough food to go around. As stated in reason three, the animals will have more food, if there are a smaller number of them. Commercial farms have lost crops because of wild animals. So actuality, to stop hunting would only hurt the economy. As the herd of grazing animals gets larger, the animals seek food where they can find it. They will eat the farmers crops for food. Sometimes, they eradicate acres of crops. There are many cases where animals have actually broken into peoples homes and caused a considerable amount of damage while looking for food. Since the animals cant find food in their own habitat, they move into developed areas searching for food. Many auto accidents are cause by wild animals. Drivers either hit the animal or swerve to miss them and get injured or even killed. Pennsylvania leads the list of the highest number of auto accidents involving deer. State Farm estimates that 1. 5 million vehicles collide with deer every year, resulting in 150 motorists deaths and $1. 1 billion in vehicle damages. From www. unsolvedmysteries. com/usm401731. html www. medicalecology. org/diseases/lyme/lyme_disease. html http://money. cnn. com/2005/11/04/news/newsmakers/deer/.

Holding On to Reality :: Albert Borgmann Philosophy Technology Essays

Holding On to Reality Professor and philosopher Albert Borgmann proposes a respectful balance between current technology and the way it interacts with society in his recent book, Holding on to Reality: The Nature of Information at the Turn of the Millennium. Like many technological theorists, Borgmann ponders, "the deeper question of whether the recent and imminent flood of information is good for anybody" (4). In response to this uncertainty, the author devises a theory and ethics of information with the intention of rectifying society's often-troubling relationship with science and technology. Borgmann's theory divides information into three distinct parts based on the way they affect reality - natural information illuminates reality, cultural information transforms reality, and technological information displaces reality. To understand these categories, and how they highlight key developments in information technology, it is important to know what the author means when using the term "information." In Borgmann's theory, information is ordered around the relationship between a person, a sign, and a thing. A person uses his or her intelligence - both native and acquired mental ability - to place a framework of context around a messenger or signal, known as a sign, in order to understand the message, or thing, which is presented to them (38). To provide an illustration: Imagine yourself on the shore of your local beach. As you are putting down your towel, you notice a trail of deep marks in the sand, stretching a great distance down the shoreline. Since you have been to the beach before, you know that these marks are footprints. You also know that if these were old footprints, the tide would have washed them away. After a moment of thought, you interpret this trail to mean that other human beings are present farther along the beach. In this case, the sign (footprints) communicates to us the presence of a thing (humans). Since the recipient of the sign (you), has the intelligence f rom previous experience or education to know what footprints are and what happens to them, you are able to place the sign in its proper context, and understand the signal of footprints to mean the presence of human beings. If we could not formulate a relationship between the footprints in the previous example and the presence of human beings, the footprints would be just another piece of formless matter and energy. The meanings we construct out of the signs and messages that we receive are important because they help us to make sense of our environments, identities, and realities.

Macbeth Character Analysis Essay

In this essay I will write about the character of Macbeth and what my first impressions are of him, such as his bravery, strength, determination and courage. I will also write about how he is introduced, his reaction to the encounter with the weird sisters, his attitude towards Banquo, Duncan and Malcolm. Also, his relationship with his wife, Lady Macbeth. My very first impression of Macbeth was that he was was brave as the captain said, â€Å"For brave Macbeth – well he deserves that name†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Also, the captain implied that he is very strong and a great fighter, â€Å"†¦ With his brandished steel, which smoked with bloody execution, like valour’s minion carved out his passage, till he faced the slave†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . This means that he stands with his sword covered in blood which shows he has killed a lot of people and valour’s minion means bravery’s favourite. The captain also says how merciless Macbeth is as he kills the traitor Macdonwald, â€Å"†¦which never shook hands, nor bade farewell to him, till he unseamed him from the nave to the chops, and fixed his head upon our battlements†. This quote shows how merciless Macbeth is as it states that he ‘carved’ his way through the army, and how he killed Macdonwald even after bring tired and bruised without even speaking to him. He even paraded his head on the battlefield to show everybody what he had done. Our first impressions of Macbeth are that he is brave, merciless and a great fighter. The three witches soon appeared and told their predictions; â€Å"All hail Macbeth, hail to thee, Thane of Glamis!† â€Å"All hail Macbeth, hail to thee, Thane of Cawdor!† â€Å"All hail Macbeth, hail to thee, that shalt be King hereafter!†. After Macbeth heard the wierd sisters he was too shocked to speak as Banquo said, â€Å"Good sir, why do you start, and seem to fear things that do sound so fair†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He finally answered back by asking them to tell more and in more detail. He started to question the three witches and himself as he was confused; â€Å"†¦I know I am Thane of Glamis, but how of Cawdor? The thane of Cawdor lives†¦Ã¢â‚¬  . He was trying to figure out what this all meant and how these creatures got this information. He again tried to question them but the suddenly vanished into thin air, â€Å"The earth hath bubbles, as the water has, and these are of them.†. He asked Banquo if this was real or if they had eaten some kind of hallucinogens or drugs, â€Å"Were such things here as we do speak about? Or have we eaten on the insane root†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He then started thinking about being Thane of Cawdor and whether or not this could be true. The two messengers came, nearly straight after the predictions by the three witches, and told Macbeth that he was given the title Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth was in shock and Banquo said that evil was at work, Macbeth asked the messengers why he was the new Thane even though the old Thane still lived. He thanked the messengers and said to himself that more was to come as this is shown in the quote, â€Å"Glamis, and Thane of Cawdor. The greatest is behind.†. This means that the greatest prize is still to come and this is referring to him being King. His first thoughts of the three witches after they appeared and told their predictions were that they were some kind of supernatural beings and so Macbeth tried to find out what they meant, where they received this information and why they were telling him this. He was first thinking this was some kind of hoax but after the messengers came and said that the King had named him the Thane of Cawdor, he began to consider what it will mean if the third prediction is to come true. Banquo is Macbeth’s best friend and he trusts him with his life and vice versa. He respects Banquo and he uses his advice most of the time. They are partners in war and in friendship and do almost everything together. He likes Banquo but he sometimes has different thoughts than him as this quote states, â€Å"†¦But ’tis strange: And oftentimes, to win us to our harm, the instruments of darkness tell us truths†¦in deepest consequences.† This quote means that the recent occurrences are unnatural and the forces of evil encourage them to do things, which are misleading, and there could be some consequences later. Duncan is the King of Scotland and Macbeth had given him the most respect he has ever given anyone. Macbeth was loyal to the King and fought for him and the country of Scotland. Macbeth thinks that Duncan is a good King and uses his power to good strength and also the fact that he has a good judgement, this quote shows this, â€Å"Strong both against the deed; then†¦besides Duncan hath borne his faculties so meek, hath been so clear in his great office†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This means that Macbeth thinks King Duncan is a good king who is not corrupt. Macbeth does not like Malcolm even though he is related to him, Malcolm is the heir to the throne and that is a bit of a pain in the neck. Macbeth wants to be king but cannot as Malcolm is the heir so, as you would imagine he is an obstacle in Macbeth’s ambition and target, this quote shows this. â€Å"The Prince of Cumberland-that is a step†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Lady Macbeth is Macbeth’s wife and Macbeth loves her very much and so he sends her a letter telling her that he has become the Thane of Cawdor, â€Å"They met me in a day of success†¦they have more in them than mortal knowledge†¦came missives from the King, who hailed me ‘Thane of Cawdor’†¦ â€Å" Lady Macbeth is the kind of person that gets what she wants and I don’t think that Macbeth likes this that much. She persuades him to murder Duncan nearly straight after she recieves his letter. Macbeth likes Lady Macbeth but he doesn’t like the way she gets her way but he still goes with the flow, â€Å"Was the hope drunk wherein you dressed yourself†¦and live a coward in thine own esteem†¦each corporal agent to this terrible feat. Away, and mock the time with fairest show†¦ â€Å" Here, Lady Macbeth uses reverse psychology by accusing him of cowardice and a lack of love or her. Overall the first impressions we get of Macbeth are that he is brave and a good fighter and that he is loyal to his country and the King. His first impressions of the three witches were the same as anybody else, surprise and that the witches are some strange people or that they are seeing things. He likes Banquo and respects him and he is very loyal to Duncan who is like a father figure to him. He doesn’t like Malcolm that much as he is an obstacle but he is still related to him. His relationship with Lady Macbeth is very good but you get the impression that she is very much in control of their relationship.

Elementary education effectiveness in Mississippi Essay

Mississippi consists of four-hundred and eighty-six thousand people living in poverty; ten percent of children belong to families that are not able to meet their needs (2005). Recent statistics show that those living in poverty are fifty-one percent African American and approximately forty-seven percent Caucasian (2005). Research has shown that the socioeconomic status of students influence the degree of success they will experience. (Donahue &Grigg, 2003) Mississippi has varying degrees of reading proficiency among school districts. In the 2003-2004 school year, six districts, consisting of one elementary school, five middle schools and one high school, were identified as â€Å"in need for improvement†, based on the reading and math proficiency of its students. For the purpose of this study, only schools reflecting a lack in reading proficiency will be discussed. The U. S. Secretary of Education, Margaret Spelling announced in a November 2005 press release, â€Å"Eighty percent of the fastest-growing jobs require at least some post secondary education. Yet far too many students are leaving high school unprepared for college†. Improved student achievement can provide students better preparation for college, thus closing the achievement gap. Low socioeconomic schools, although improving, are still behind the majority of middle-to-upper class schools in America (Donahue & Grigg, 2003). There are several factors to consider when looking at closing the achievement gap found in low socioeconomic schools. One factor is that â€Å"young, low-income and minority children are more likely to start school without having gained important school readiness skills, such as recognizing letters and counting† (2003). As Donahue and Grigg’s report showed, when students start school already behind others, they are likely to continue such patterns if not addressed early on. Existing studies demonstrate the problems researchers are having addressing literacy issues early on in a students academic career. Researches are trying to find appropriate strategies to combat the achievement gap with many variables which will be discussed further in detail, in the following study. Purpose of the Study The following is a detailed investigation into possible explanations of varying degrees of reading achievement found in Mississippi and what can be done to maintain a higher overall proficiency in reading among Mississippi students, while satisfying the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Many schools have chosen to implement a â€Å"school-wide approach† to closing the achievement gap; however, when dealing with schools consisting primarily of low-income students, there are other factors to consider when choosing a strategy. The proposed study will focus on improving reading skills in high-poverty schools found in Mississippi by comparing different techniques widely used and creating a more targeted strategy for low-income students. When deciding on an appropriate strategy for improving reading comprehension there are a few factors one must consider. The following questions will outline the factors to be researched in this study. Research Questions 1. What impact does social economic status have on the achievement gaps found in the State of Mississippi? 2. What are the contributing factors found in Mississippi schools that are demonstrating low reading scores among economically disadvantaged students? 3. Are there high-poverty schools in Mississippi which demonstrate positive improvements in reading scores? What are the strategies used? 4. How does implementing Theory into Practice (TIP) encourage positive student achievement in disadvantaged schools? Hypothesis To affectively close low socioeconomic achievement gaps in reading, strong emphasis on establishing proficient reading ability should be made in elementary school. Nature of the Study The research conducted in this study will be an investigation of existing literature regarding techniques used in improving reading skills, exemplary schools demonstrating such techniques and finally, a suggested strategy to use when applying research to low socioeconomic schools with low reading proficiency found in Mississippi school districts. Significance of the Study The significance of this study is that by identifying factors contributing to the achievement gap found in low socioeconomic school districts, as well as investigating into existing programs that have had a positive influence on reading performance scores in other high-poverty schools is that, school administrators and policy makers will have a better basis in which to improve upon existing programs and interventions that would be more financially attainable than starting new programs. The high cost of starting new programs such as; creating new assessment strategies, providing more staff and researchers as well as other costly planning and implementing variables, often times are not practical for low-economic schools. While children of today are growing up in a world where data are being revealed at an alarming rate and knowledge is simply a click away, reading plays an increasingly crucial role in society (Topping & Paul, 1999). The ability to read is not only fundamental for understanding and mastery of every school subject students will encounter, but literacy also plays a critical and crucial role in students’ social and economic lives (Snow, Bums, & Griffin, 1998). As a result, no other factor will have a greater impact on the success of students in Mississippi than their ability to read. With such an emphasis placed on the importance of reading achievement, educational leaders must clearly articulate the expectation that all students can become successful readers, while providing the most effective strategies and opportunities for students to succeed in reading and adopt lifelong reading practices. (Okpala, et al. , 2001) Definitions of Terms Action Team for Partnership- This partnership is also known as a School Improvement Team or a School Council. Although the ATP members oversee the school’s partnership program, other teachers, parents, students, administrators, and community members also may lead family and community involvement activities (ATP website). Adequate Yearly Progress- AYP requires that schools hold the same high standards for all their students; regardless of racial or ethnic background, socioeconomic status and English proficiency Core Academic Subjects- These subjects include: English, language arts and reading, arts, civics, government and history, mathematics and science, foreign languages, as well as, economics and geography. Elementary School- a nonprofit institution which includes, public school, day or residential school and elementary charter schools which State law mandated elementary education. Family Literacy Services – The services provided to participants on a voluntary basis that foster a positive change in families. These changes include, providing families with interactive activities between parents and child concerning literacy, teaching parents to take an active role in their children’s education, teaching self-sufficiency by providing parental literacy training, and providing education to children which is age-appropriate and prepares them for school and life experiences. Highly Qualified (in reference to public elementary or secondary school teacher) – A highly qualified teacher will possess a State certification for teaching or holds a license to teach in a particular state due to passing the State exam and is employed in a teaching position after meeting all required testing, training and educational requirements satisfactory to the State, district and school regulations. Mentoring- A responsible elder who provides positive leadership and guidance to a child as a positive role model in that child’s life. A mentor mission is to help a child to one day become a responsible adult. Minority- a group of students which do not demonstrate the majority’s characteristics, such as socioeconomic status, ethnic background or other key characteristics. Other Staff- staff found within an institution such as personnel, guidance counselors, and administration and teachers aides. Limitations In her 2005 press release Secretary Spelling said, â€Å"we all hear a lot of stories about why schools are missing Adequate Yearly Progress, but we don’t hear much about how thousands of other schools are making it and closing the achievement gap†. This study is limited by location; its main concentration being primarily on Mississippi schools, programs and outcomes. The primary research method is investigating existing literature, as such; there is substantial literature on the failures of many schools trying to improve student achievement; however there is very little literature depicting success. One other limitation to consider is that this study focuses on reading proficiency; however; to get the most accurate depiction of a schools success is to consider all core academic subjects.

Define Statutory Sexual Seduction Essays - Sex Crimes, Rape

Define Statutory Sexual Seduction Essays - Sex Crimes, Rape Define Statutory Sexual Seduction 1.Define Statutory Sexual Seduction: According to NRS 200.364 Statutory sexual seduction is when a person 18 years of age or older commits ordinary sexual intercourse, anal intercourse, cunnilingus, fellatio, intent of arousing, appealing to or gratify the lust or passions or sexual desires of either of the person with a person 18 years or older. 2.What is the penalty for a person who commits sexual assault for a child under the age of 14, where no substantial bodily harm results? Where the person has been previously convicted of a sexual assault? According to NRS 200.366 subsection 4 a person commits a sexual assault against a child under the age of 16 years, where no substantial bodily harm results, and previously convicted of sexual assault is guilty of category A felony and shall be punished by imprisonment in the state prison for life 3.What is the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006? Has it been fully implemented in Nevada? Why or why not? In WhiteHouse.gov Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act 2006 (AWCPSA) is a federal statute, which was signed on July 27, 2006 by George W. Bush. AWCPSA organizes sex offenders into a three-tier system. AWCPSA enforces sex offenders to register into sex offender registry, update their current whereabouts, and instructs each state and territory to apply identical criteria for posting offender data on the Internet. According to Las Vegas Review Journal article Bill would repeal Adam Walsh sex-offender act in Nevada Nevada was one of the first states to implement the Adam Walsh Act, but recently Nevada introduced Senate Bill 99 in February to repel the states version of the federal Adam Walsh Act for the rethinking of juvenile sex-offnders. 4.What category of crime is it if an offender maliciously engages in a course of conduct that would cause a reasonable person to feel terrorized, frightened or intimidated? What if that course of conduct threatens a person to the point of the victim feeling reasonably in fear of death? The category of crime for an offender maliciously engage in a course of conduct that would cause a reasonable person to feel terrorized, frightened or intimidated is Stalking under NRS 200.575, which will be guilty of misdemeanor and subsequent offenses result I gross misdemeanor. In NRS 200.575 subsection 2 commits the crime aggravated stalking, which will be guilty of a category B felony 5.Where, generally, can the crime of harassment occur? (hint, it can occur in either of two places under the statute) According to NRS 200.581 the crime of harassment can occur where the conduct occurred or where the person who was affected by the conduct was located at the time that the conduct occurred. 6.What is the penalty for one who distributes a dvd showing a minor engaging in a sex act? Indicated in NRS 200.725 the penalty for one who distributes a dvd showing a minor engaging in a sex act is guilty category B felony and shall be punished by imprisonment in the state prison for a minimum term of not less than 1 year and a maximum term of not more than 15 years, or by a fine of not more than $15,000, or by both fine and imprisonment. 7.Can a prosecutor legally possess the dvd showing a minor engaging in a sex act from question #6? Can a criminal defense attorney possess it? According NRS 200.735 law enforcement has an exemption in legally possessing a dvd showing a minor engaging in a sex act during the investigation or prosecution. A criminal defense attorney cannot possess the dvd. 8.What is "sexting?" Is it a criminal act in Nevada if it is done by an 11 year old person? Sexting is the distribution of sexual content from one person to another with an electronic communication device. According to NRS 200.737 the a 11 year old person will be a child in need of supervision and not considered a delinquent and isnt considered a sex offender. 9.Is spousal rape a crime in Nevada? Why is it defined separately in the Nevada statute, and not simply assumed to be part of the sexual assault definitions? Spousal rape is a crime in Nevada. The reason spousal rape is defined separately from sexual assault is because NRS 200.364 defines

The Efficacy And Advantages Of Inserting Foreign Genes Into The Chloroplastic Genome Instead Of The Nuclear Genome

The Efficacy And Advantages Of Inserting Foreign Genes Into The Chloroplastic Genome Instead Of The Nuclear Genome This paper will discuss the efficacy and advantages of inserting foreign genes into the chloroplastic genome instead of the nuclear genome. It will also cover in depth elaboration of relevant issues by using named examples.In DNA, adjacent nucleotides are joined by the phosphate between the 5 carbon atom of the sugar of one nucleotide and the 3 carbon atom of the sugar in the adjoining nucleotide. In DNA, one side of the double helix terminates in a 3 end while the other side, aligned in the opposite direction (antiparallel), terminates in a 5 end. To these projecting 3 ends, a short series of identical nucleotides containing adenine were attached through the activity of another enzyme. Another batch of DNA was treated in a likewise manner, except that nucleotides containing thymine were added instead of adenine.(Avril, 187-94)When these two samples of DNA were mixed, the complementary tails of A- and T-bearing nucleotides became joined by hydrogen bonding. This combined the once sep arate fragments into long, interconnected chains. DNA ligase was then added to form bonds between the sugar and phosphate groups. The two DNA strands were now one. It was certainly intriguing that one could now cut up DNA into unpredictable heterogeneous fragments and randomly stitch them back together. However, for further insights into the organization of DNA and its genes that is, the determination of precise nucleotide  sequences very specific nucleases would have to be found. The prevailing opinion was that such specific DNA-cutting capability did not exist in nature. The only clue to the possibility that more specific nucleases might exist came from observations beginning as early as 1953 that when DNA molecules from E. coli were introduced into another slightly different form of E. coli they seldom functioned genetically. They were quickly broken down into smaller fragments. This apparently was part of a system that had evolved in bacteria to protect them against the entra nce of foreign DNA. In addition to all of the other more obvious forms of competition in nature, there is a constant invisible struggle played out in the microscopic world, in this case between bacteria and bacteriophages. Darwins natural selection is recreated here on a minute scale.(David, 131-44) First, bacteria can be grown under controlled conditions, rapidly and in enormous numbers. Overnight, a few cells will multiply into literally billions. It is very important to understand that a bacterial cell ordinarily reproduces simply by copying itself. Assuming that no mutations occur in the cells, all the descendants of that one cell are identical. Such a population of cells originating from a single cell is termed a clone and the process of producing that clone is referred to as cloning the cell. The DNA in a typical bacterial cell exists in two forms. One is the single bacterial chromosome which, unlike the chromosomes in our cells, is in the form of a circular molecule. The DNA of all other organisms can be likened to a long string. In bacteria, the ends of the string are joined, forming a circle. In addition to the DNA in the bacterial chromosome, DNA also occurs in bacteria in the form of plasmids. These, like the bacterial chromosome, are also circular DNA molecules, but much smaller. When the bacterial cell divides, the bacterial chromosome replicates and one chromosome is passed on to the new cell. Likewise, each of the plasmids replicate and half are delivered to the next generation. The plasmids are unique, independent, self-replicating DNA molecules which can exist only within the living bacterial cell.Plasmids can easily be isolated from bacteria by breaking open the cells with enzymes which break down the cell wall. The resulting mix is centrifuged.The heavier chromosomal DNA, termed genomic DNA, as well as cell fragments will go to the bottom. (James, 44-49) This leaves a relatively clean suspension of plasmids near the top of the centrifuge tub e. These tiny circles of DNA are actually not vital to the survival of the bacterium. The plasmids can be removed from a bacterial cell and the cell will function normally. However, some plasmids do contain genes which confer a marked advantage to the cell under certain conditions. For example, the fatal poison of lockjaw is a product of genes in plasmids of the tetanus bacterium. E. coli has plasmids that cause one form of the infamous travelers diarrhea. Probably the most widely studied plasmid genes are the ones conferring resistance to specific antibiotics. Certain bacteria can produce enzymes coded for by plasmid genes that break down antibiotics such as penicillin, ampicillin, tetracycline, or chloramphenicol. In nature, this gives the bacteria a defense mechanism against naturally occurring antibiotics. In the tissues of an infected patient, bacteria with these plasmids may overcome the administration of therapeutic antibiotics. Such resistant infections have become a major m edical problem. This seemingly esoteric description of bacterial life contains another key element in our story. These bacterial plasmids are used as the DNA molecules into which other DNA fragments cut out by a restriction enzyme can be placed. Going back to our original principle, if we cut up any DNA with a restriction enzyme and cut plasmids with the same enzyme, mix the cut plasmids and the cut DNA in the presence of DNA ligase, plasmid-foreign DNA chimeras will be formed. Gene cloning now solves these problems. To clone a gene means simply to obtain a minute, pure sample of the gene and make lots more of it, as if one had a document and made many identical ones by photocopying it. The photocopying of genes is accomplished by first joining a few of the genes to vectors such as plasmids and inserting the vectors, now carrying the gene, into bacteria or other suitable cells. We have introduced the basic principles of gene cloning already. In that process, so-called foreign DNA, t he DNA we have removed from an organism, is inserted into the vector molecule, such as a plasmid, to create a DNA chimera. The building of such composites or artificial recombinant molecules has also been termed genetic engineering or gene manipulation. This procedure has also been referred to as molecular cloning or gene cloning because a population of genetically identical bacteria, all containing the desired DNA, can be grown in great numbers, thereby copying the DNA as often as the cells divide. (Roger, 34-38) What is very significant is that these chimeras within the bacterial cells may be able to copy not only themselves but actually produce a specific gene product in large amounts. This approach has already been utilized in the commercial production of human insulin, growth hormone, and the antiviral protein interferon. All of these can now be made by bacteria, because the human genes that regulate their synthesis have been isolated and cloned in bacteria. The bacterial cells , grown in vast numbers, obedient to the commands of their genes, now make a human gene product. Human gene products derived from genes isolated and cloned during the Human Genome Project will undoubtedly also be used for the benefit of humanity, particularly in the cure and prevention of disease. Consider the explicit and implicit problems. Our genes are part of the chromosomes which function within the nucleus of each cell. Every defective gene is therefore inside each diploid somatic (nonreproductive) cell and distributed at random in the haploid gametes. The aim of gene therapy is to replace or supplement the defective genetic information with normal, functional genes. How could we possibly get at those undesirable genes, hidden as they are inside the trillions of cells that constitute the human body? The actual physical removal and replacement of genes in the bodys cells is not possible. However, ample precedent exists for the introduction of normal genes into cells where they become part of the functional genome of the cell without necessitating the removal or repair of a resident nonfunctional gene.(Victor, 910-915)For there reside the genes, the chromosomal subunits in which lies the code that determines a lot more than our hair and eye color, our sex, or our height, and right- or left-handedness. They are the direct cause of many diseases such as cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell anemia, regulate our tendency toward cancer, heart attacks, or Alzheimers disease . . . in fact, humans are afflicted by more than 3000 known inherited diseases. Similarly a new frontier in molecular biology is upon us. We are only now approaching through the Human Genome Project and all of the research that it will inspire an intimate understanding of our genes. This will bring with it a power over human life which must be used wisely. There is much more to be said on this theme in later chapters, so let us return to the drama at hand: the revolutionary discovery of the struct ure and essence of the gene.